Training for employability

Discussion paper by María Angélica Ducci, Chief, Training Policies and Systems Branch, ILO, Geneva with the collaboration of Aysé Mitchell, Senior Policy Adviser

ILO ENTERPRISE FORUM 96

International Labour Organization

Equity and growth in a global economy

Globalization and inequalities

Employment at stake

Training and employability

The process: Converging interests and shared responsibilities

Learning: The watchword for competitive

Training for the excluded

Flexible and continuous training systems

Training as a collective investment: Building partnerships

Equity: An imperative for sustainable growth

Bibliography

I. Equity and growth in a global economy

Today, society is undergoing a transformation of unprecedented magnitude and speed, affecting all spheres of economic and social life. This transformation has occurred in the context of the growing globalization of the world economy. Rapid technological change, particularly in the area of information and communications, facilitates financial flows and an increasing exchange of products and services, creating a highly competitive international market. This is further intensified by the deregulation of markets, the progressive dismantling of trade barriers, the signature of multilateral trade agreements and formation of new trade groupings, the relocation of production and the international flow of capital and labour. The new world economy, based on greater reliance on market mechanisms and liberalized trade, gives a prominent role to the private sector.

1. Globalization and inequalities

Enterprises are the pioneers of change. Being the driving force of production and trade, they are compelled to compete or perish. In adapting to the pressures of a globalized economy, enterprises struggle to maximize rentability through productivity, product quality and access to increasingly scarce and demanding markets, while reducing costs, very often at the expense of jobs. The trend towards privatization in many countries has left to private enterprises most of the productive activities that were formerly carried out by the public sector. More than ever before, enterprises stand as the protagonists of growth and change, with all the new challenges and responsibilities that this entails.

The world of enterprises is, however, highly heterogeneous, and the gap between large, modern enterprises in expanding sectors, and small-scale undertakings in traditional sectors is widening. Certain transnational corporations have expanded globally, becoming increasingly powerful and commanding resources greater than the GDP of some of the countries where they operate. At the other extreme, small enterprises, preponderant in terms of both the total number of enterprises and workers employed, have very limited means to compete in international markets and run up against serious technical, financial and administrative problems. Particularly in poor countries, dualism increases as multinationals set new dynamic patterns of production for export, contrasting with domestic small and micro-enterprises which remain marginalized from export-led growth.

Globalization is here to stay, shaking and redefining the structure and functioning of the world economy. And, while it is true that it offers unprecedented opportunities for all countries and, most particularly, for developing economies, voices are being raised throughout the world alerting us to the risks associated with globalization as far as human and social progress is concerned. "Increased participation in international trade improves resource allocation, enhances efficiency by increasing competition among firms, and induces learning and technology transfer, thus facilitating growth", says the World Bank. But the richest countries are the ones that are benefiting the most, while the poorest countries lag even farther behind.

Facts show that, together with spectacular increases in trade, inequalities are soaring among and within countries. The UNDP's 1996 Human Development Report is striking: "Since 1980, there has been a dramatic surge in economic growth in some 15 countries, bringing rapidly rising incomes to many of their 1.5 billion people. Over much of this period, however, economic decline or stagnation has affected 100 countries, reducing the incomes of 1.6 billion people ... In 70 of these countries average incomes are less than they were in 1980 ... Over 1990­93 alone, average incomes fell by a fifth or more in 21 countries ...". The same UNDP report illustrates the widening gulf between the rich and the poor: in 1996 "the assets of the world's 358 billionaires exceed the combined annual incomes of countries with 45 per cent of the world's people". While global trade on goods and services continues to boom, the world has never before marginalized so many people. The report concludes: "In much of this success and disaster, many of the poor have missed out, and even the better-off have often been left vulnerable to unemployment and downsizing ..."

Employment at stake

Worldwide, the employment picture is gloomy. According to the ILO's 1996 World Employment report, unemployment rates in most industrialized countries have risen since 1973 and there has been a rapid emergence of mass unemployment in the former centrally planned economies since they began the process of transition to a market economy in 1990. In the developing countries employment conditions deteriorated in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America during the 1980s. While there has been the beginning of a reversal of this trend in Latin America with its economic recovery, the deterioration has continued in sub-Saharan Africa due to its persistently poor economic performance. The picture is on the whole better in Asia, continues the ILO report: "In the rapidly growing economies of East and South-East Asia there has been sustained and high employment growth ... However, in the slower-growing economies of South Asia, employment performance has been weaker".

Many countries showing a positive economic performance have done poorly in terms of employment creation. During the last decade, jobless growth has hit both industrialized and developing countries. In 1995 OECD countries as a group showed a meagre employment growth. Though with great disparities among countries, the results of growth upon employment are deceiving, indicates the OECD's 1996 Employment Outlook: "The risk faced by a certain number of OECD countries is that the labour market exclusion can easily lead into poverty and dependence". Departing from its firm free-market line, the OECD itself is now warning that the soaring gap between high-paid and low-paid workers in many Western nations threatens to marginalize workers and put additional strain on government coffers.

In developing countries, too, jobless growth has meant long hours and very low incomes for the hundreds of millions of people in low-productivity work in agriculture and in the informal sector. Although official statistics fail to capture the complex nature of unemployment and underemployment in many developing countries, open unemployment is severe and growing in many urban areas, particularly among youth, women and older workers.

The quality of available jobs is another matter of concern. Job security is being eroded. Employment is increasingly part time and in piece-work in industrial countries, and in the informal sector in developing countries. The effects of downsizing in the private and public sector, combined with capital-intensive production and ever more sophisticated technologies, is not being sufficiently offset by the creation of new good jobs in expanding sectors. Too often, economic growth has been based on financial speculation more than on job-generating investment.

Against this picture, the possibilities of aspiring to full employment are being questioned. World rulers, policy-makers and business leaders must demonstrate that the new global capitalism can effectively benefit the majority of human beings and not only top managers, high-ranking workers and investors. The scarcity and precariousness of employment opportunities, the widening income distribution and the danger of deep institutionalized poverty might undermine the legitimacy, and thus the effectiveness and consistency, of the economic reforms so painfully undertaken by most countries of the world.

In the long run, markets for an increasingly diversified production of goods and services will dry up unless the purchasing power and savings capacity of the majority are protected. It is the sustainability of business which is at stake. Only by heightening and redistributing employment and incomes will growth and equity become mutually supportive.

II. Employability: A password for employment?

"Employability" has emerged as the new buzz-word to counteract job anxiety. But the term is ambiguous. Is it just a palliative to placate and divert the plea for more and better jobs? Or is it effectively the lever for restoring full employment? Is employability the convergent path to bridge the gap between economic growth and equity under the new circumstances of the world of work? The question remains open and the answer will depend largely on the approach taken to boost employability and on the set of economic, social and labour policies and practices that will allow it to materialize into real employment opportunities.

Training and employability

What is apparent is that employability stresses the need to equip people with the skills and competences they require to be employable or to create their own job, and enterprises with the qualified, motivated and committed workforce they require to remain competitive and grow. Moreover, in a globalized economy the competitive advantages of every country will increasingly depend on the deliberate and continuous formation and utilization of "intelligent labour", based on knowledge, practical skills, innovation and technology. In short, employability urges individuals, enterprises, governments and society at large to invest, quantitatively and qualitatively, in the training, development and productive utilization of their human potential.

Employability can thus be defined as the increased opportunity and capability for constructing the productive skills and competences that will allow people to find, create, keep, enrich and change jobs, and to obtain fair personal, economic, social and professional rewards in return. The concept of trainability goes hand in hand with employability, and implies the sound knowledge base to build, progressively, on the skills of the workforce through further training.

The process: Converging interests and shared responsibilities

For each individual, employability means enhanced possibilities of successful transitions throughout working life: from school to first employment, for re-entering the labour market after unemployment, for horizontal and vertical mobility within and between enterprises, between training and work, between wage-employment and self-employment, and for coping with changing job contents and requirements. Individuals are the main architects of their own competences and it is up to them to make the choices to acquire them. Nevertheless, individuals will only invest in their own training according to labour market signals and incentives. Therefore, individuals need access to a diversified supply of training, labour market information and guidance services, financial support for initial and recurrent training, recognition of skills' value and certification of competences formally and informally acquired and, most crucial, good prospects of employment and income.

For enterprises, employability relates to the value they attach to human resources. Internally, it can be inferred from enterprises' personnel policies and behaviour towards their employees: recruitment and hiring practices, work organization, remuneration systems, conditions of work, social benefits, career development and, particularly, training. Employment security, wages and career prospects are crucial to enhancing workers' productivity and commitment to the enterprise. But current trends, including industrial restructuring, labour market deregulation and changing skill needs, are eroding the stability and quality of jobs. Hence, training becomes decisive, either in increasing the adaptability of employees to new requirements and, therefore, for their continued employability within the enterprise, or in equipping them with the competences that will facilitate their mobility into another job in the face of eventual redeployment. Externally, enterprises are bound to develop a growing interest in the total quality of the workforce, and in its constant updating and renewal, since it provides the source of the competences to which they will resort to fulfil quickly their unanticipated needs.

For society at large, and particularly for governments as guarantors of the public interest, full employment presupposes the employability of all those available, able and actively looking for work. As concluded by the International Labour Conference in 1996, full employment remains an achievable goal and requires an enabling environment of economic and financial policies, an appropriate legal and institutional framework, a competent, effective and accountable public administration, and clear policy priorities to create and expand employment and improve its quality, through the development of enterprises. "Central to these policies", recognizes the Conference in its conclusions, "is the need to provide universal access to basic education, opportunities for further education, vocational training, skill development and opportunities for lifelong education".

Enhancing employability therefore involves stakeholders at different levels: individuals, enterprises, governments, workers' and employers' organizations, alongside the community and society in general. And their share of responsibility does not end in the collective effort for training and lifelong learning but goes through realizing its potential by the creation of employment opportunities in which employability can effectively materialize.

III. Training for a learning society

The enterprise as we know it is changing not only from within but also in terms of its relations with the outside. The need to adapt rapidly to changing global markets and to survive in an increasingly competitive and unpredictable business environment is pushing firms to strive for higher productivity and continuous innovation, the achievement of which rely necessarily on a better educated and skilled workforce.

1. Learning: The watchword for competitive enterprises

In a new and infinitely more complex work environment, where mass production is giving way to customized production and where product life-cycles are ever shorter, enterprises are compelled to respond to the three "C"s: competition, change and customer. The key is "flexibility".

Cutting-edge enterprises are introducing leaner, flatter structures and new, more flexible forms of work organization, concentrating on core activities and creating various forms of inter-enterprise alliances. In the process of externalizing production, the parent company focuses on design, assembly and marketing, while wholly or partially subcontracting production to tiers of external units.

A new type of industrial organization is thus being born, with supple ties between nominally independent but highly interconnected economic agents, cutting across a wide range of enterprises, often beyond national boundaries. Various forms of inter-firm partnerships and chains are being formed for research, co-production, co-marketing and co-distribution arrangements. Strategic alliances between large corporations, sometimes involving major competitors, are creating mega-enterprise conglomerates and networks with smaller companies.

Traditionally, in industrial society, management assumed responsibility for the success of the enterprise, and employees for carrying out the tasks allotted to them. Intensified competition, rapid change and new work processes are changing the role of management and empowering "core" workers, who take a major share of the responsibility for enterprise performance. The value of this asset must be constantly increased through further training, and protected through a work environment conducive to fulfilling workers' economic and social objectives.

"Learning organizations" are those where learning and work are integrated, where the focus is on human capital, and where workers' competences are up to international standards. Leading enterprises have proved that investing in the training of workers is an essential and highly profitable component of their re-engineering strategies. A recent study conducted by the Consultative Group on Competitiveness of the European Commission demonstrates the spectacular impact of training in such varied enterprises as Baxi in the United Kingdom, Nokia in Finland, ABB in Sweden, Bremer Landesbank in Germany, National Nederlande in the Netherlands, Telepizza in Spain, Renault in France, and many others.

All these enterprises launched a set of strategic initiatives where innovation was the pillar to overcome bottlenecks in competitiveness and growth. Training, and establishing a culture of learning within the enterprise and in the surrounding environment, enhanced job security of employees and employability for potential workers, while significantly improving the enterprise's competitiveness and bringing dynamism to the communities where they operate. Training thus became the link through which employers' interest in improving performance converged with a long-term commitment to the well-being of workers.

2. Training for the excluded

In the wake of the changes in the organization of production, the number, structure, organization and content of jobs are changing within and across enterprises. Moreover, as the enterprise boundaries are becoming blurred, the traditional pattern of full-time and permanent, paid employment is on the decline, and a higher turnover of jobs is the expected itinerary for an increasing proportion of workers.

The impact of the new paradigm on people is, therefore, twofold: on the one hand, it stresses the value of competent workers, by recognizing the key role of human ingenuity in the production process; on the other, it makes workers more vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion, thereby challenging social stability in many countries.

The dividing line lies between those who have "learned how to learn", and those who have not. Thus, the right to, and real opportunities for, lifelong learning should become an integral part of social protection for all workers. Employability and job security will depend increasingly on competence and performance. And this means additional responsibility for the workers, in acquiring skills and pursuing their personal growth as the best asset for continuous employability.

In developing countries, the large modern-sector enterprises employ only a small percentage of the workforce. The majority, therefore, are beyond the reach of enterprise-based training programmes. This scenario is also becoming increasingly common in industrialized countries. Young people and new entrants to the labour market, particularly women, need specially designed training programmes, which should include greater exposure to, and familiarization with, the work environment. Displaced workers need to be retrained to facilitate their reintegration into the labour market. The unemployed, and in particular the low-skilled long-term unemployed, require training integrated into a package of supportive services to enhance their employability. Homeworkers, part-time workers, and those in precarious, short-term jobs, are rarely covered by training programmes organized by the firms for which they work. Vulnerable groups among the young, women, the disabled, ethnic minorities and workers at risk of losing their job are less able to benefit from available training opportunities.

Government-sponsored training schemes are often the only available choice for these groups. Targeted training programmes serve an important redistributive function, fostering the employability of the most disadvantaged groups in the labour market. However, the efficacy of such programmes, particularly for the unemployed, is not straightforward. Especially during transitional unemployment in times of recession or during the time-lag between job destruction and job creation, the income foregone during training is zero. Therefore, the determining criterion should be the relevance of training content for expected employment opportunities, including entrepreneurial training to create self-employment. Moreover, training alone cannot make a significant impact in enhancing the employability of trainees unless several other supportive measures and labour market programmes are in place, within a favourable macro-economic environment.

Labour market training programmes directed towards specific groups are more effective when they are closely linked to enterprises' actual or potential needs. Therefore, it is essential that enterprises be involved in identifying skill shortages and areas for growth. It is equally important that enterprises sponsor periods of practice in real work situations as part of labour market training programmes, especially for youth. Government programmes should therefore promote and include, as a fundamental component, specific incentives to encourage enterprises to participate.

Small-enterprise workers are also likely to have very limited training opportunities at their disposal. Difficulties, such as lack of time, technical capacity, financial resources and awareness of the benefits of training, in addition to a fear of "poaching" by larger enterprises, prevent small enterprises from embarking on training programmes. Workers in micro-enterprises and other informal sector activities, as well as small farmers and casual rural-sector workers, face even greater constraints. The smaller productive units need training to become competitive, to link with larger enterprises as clients, suppliers and subcontractors and progressively to accede even to international markets, thus entering into the stream of development and growth.

Again, training is just one component of a broader package of support and incentives to be provided to small enterprises. But the survival, stabilization and expansion of small productive units, and their potential to continue generating employment and to improve its quality, largely depend on their capacity to maximize productivity by introducing higher-level technology, better product quality and good management practices. None of this can be done without a skilled, creative and competent workforce.

IV. The challenges ahead

A "knowledge society" is in the making. "The skills of a nation's workforce and the quality of its infrastructure are what makes it unique and attractive in the world economy", has stated Robert Reich, the Secretary of Labor of the United States. Knowledge-based investment has become a priority equal to that of physical capital. The development of human capital is, therefore, the critical challenge for the twenty-first century and beyond.

The knowledge society requires a different kind of learning. No longer can learning be a one-time event at the start of working life, but rather a continuous lifelong process, where initial education and training must be conceived as the platform on which recurrent learning will be based thereafter. The need for lifelong learning dramatically increases and diversifies the demand for training. This, in turn, requires the urgent reform of national training systems.

Three main issues are at stake: devising flexible and continuous training systems to meet the changing labour market requirements; mobilizing greater investment in education and training; and ensuring equitable access to training opportunities.

1. Flexible and continuous training systems

The competences now required in the world of work call for a blend of general knowledge and techno-professional skills, rooted in a sound foundation of aptitudes, attitudes and values. Therefore, a platform of solid general education is essential for subsequent training and work. Vocational education and initial training should focus on "core" skills and competences that facilitate access to a broad family of occupations and further trainability by enterprises. These "core" competences should add up to a relevant combination of technical skills and information technology, social and inter-personal skills, intellectual skills and entrepreneurial skills. Recurrent training should progressively build on these core competences to foster the multiskilling of workers, emphasizing not only narrow technical specialization but knowledge and skills that are portable across jobs and firms.

How can education and training systems be redirected to develop flexible and cumulative lifelong learning?

Training systems should be demand-driven, to a large extent, and this requires a strong interaction between education, training and the real world of work. Government-led training systems, it is argued, have been excessively rigid and supply-driven and, therefore, unable to produce the skills employers want or the skills required for the economy to remain competitive. The risk is now that the pendulum may swing to the other extreme. The challenge is to foster a coherent and forward-looking training system catering for real needs rather than exclusively for explicit market demands, while still leaving ample room for the much needed relevance and flexibility.

2. Training as a collective investment: Building partnerships

The responsiveness of training to labour market needs calls for a redefinition of new and complementary roles for the State and the private sector. Most important is the commitment and greater involvement of enterprises in both, pre-employment and recurrent training. Enterprises naturally concentrate on job-specific training of their own core employees for short-term increases in productivity. The way points ahead: the capacity and further potential of enterprises for training has to be unleashed. Governments have to provide the enabling environment and the correct incentives for enterprises to pick up the gauntlet.

Decentralization and the reduction of government control promote institutional autonomy and local initiatives, fostering collaboration and the active involvement of multiple stakeholders. Greater communication and cooperation between educational institutions and the workplace will heighten the relevance, effectiveness and efficiency of the overall training effort, including the initial training of youth, retraining for the unemployed and further training for those at a social and economic disadvantage.

Strengthening partnerships between government and enterprises is a must. Innovative experiences throughout the world are highlighting the significant impact of joint action, in policy-making and training delivery, as well as in sharing the burden of training costs. Austerity in public spending and strain on enterprises to keep costs down deter both sides from investing in training, while diminishing incomes and employment uncertainties discourage individuals from paying for their own training. Nevertheless, the pressure to keep pace with rapid change, to compete and to innovate requires training more than ever before.

Training must be seen as investment rather than as a mere expenditure, and its positive effects need to be more widely publicized. Training efficiency calls for stimulating the best possible use of all technical, physical and financial resources available, and this presupposes the effective marketing of training. In short, the goal is to bring about a culture of learning, involving government, enterprises, individuals and other stakeholders.

The question is to what extent the private sector is willing, and able, to take a greater share of the traditional responsibility of governments for training. As training markets become more visible, government intervention refocuses on regulation, acting as promoter, facilitator and catalyst of training initiatives. Nevertheless, the State remains accountable to its citizens for the overall quality and outcomes of training, in particular when involving public funds. Serious consideration, then, must be given to the role of governments in establishing the rules of the game in order effectively to counteract market imperfections which may result in under-investment or erroneous allocation of resources by enterprises and individuals.

The involvement of the social partners in training is decisive. Tripartite and bipartite dialogue and negotiations are essential, particularly as decision-making concerning training is being progressively decentralized and transferred to private training operators and individual enterprises. Hence, new and diverse forms of meaningful participation by the social partners in training must be conceived and stimulated at all levels.

3. Equity: An imperative for sustainable growth

The age-old dilemma of efficiency versus equity in training systems bursts forth with renewed vigour. The profile of the highly skilled and versatile worker required by the new workplace raises the question: what proportion of the workforce will be capable of fulfilling these requirements? And who has real access to opportunities for such training? Certainly, enterprises and nations have to create a highly skilled and competitive workforce, up to international standards. But what of the rest? The danger of creating a "three-speed society" is very real: a small proportion of high-fliers as "core workers", a large proportion of vulnerable peripheral workers, and a growing underclass of the socially excluded. This will surely threaten economic, social and political stability, and hamper a healthy business environment.

Moreover, not all enterprises have equal access to training opportunities: investment and involvement in training concentrate on large modern-sector firms, while smaller enterprises in declining sectors, which are most in need of it, have a limited capacity to undertake training on their own. Small and medium-size enterprises play an important role in employment generation and economic growth. Therefore, they must be granted preferential support, including services through small/large enterprise linkages and through employers' organizations and enterprises' associations.

Equity concerns are based on solidarity and social justice and stress equality of opportunity for all citizens to accede employment and income, to realize their potential as human beings, and to participate actively in economic and social development. At a time of rising inequalities and increased vulnerability amongst workers, it is imperative that targeted measures be set out to redress equity imbalances.

However, training alone cannot overcome massive unemployment and wage decline. In order to boost employability and equitable opportunities for all, training must become part and parcel of a comprehensive set of broader measures geared to create and expand employment and improve its quality.

V. Concluding remarks

A new era of global economic, social and cultural transformation is opening up. Increasingly, the course and pace of change is being determined by production and commercial patterns reshaping the environment in which enterprises, governments and labour operate and relate to each other. As countries move towards deregulation, market-based reforms and widespread privatization, the steering role of governments is being eroded, placing enterprises in a pivotal position as agents of development and change.

Growth and equity are two sides of the same coin. However, while global competition, communications networks, rapid investment flows and technological innovation have mobilized the dynamism of enterprises, resulting in significant increases in productivity and in the creation of wealth, inequalities widen and poverty persists in vast segments of society. There is an urgent need to bridge the gap.

Enterprises have the talent, the drive and the power to influence these trends. Worldwide, business leaders are recognizing that the new vision of corporate governance implies greater accountability to stakeholders, not just to shareholders. As economic progress and social progress become more intimately interdependent, profits and the accumulation of capital cannot be the sole interest of business. The creation and distribution of wealth, value added and employment should be the primary, and increasingly convergent, concerns of sustainable business. Therefore, enterprises are called upon progressively to develop a new integrated dimension of their economic and social role.

Training for employability is a privileged area for such an endeavour. Human resources development and management are strategic for enterprises' competitiveness and profitability, and for workers' job security, professional and personal development, recognition and remuneration. Business success and social stability will increasingly depend on a skilled and competent workforce and on the enterprises' capacity for continuous innovation and adaptation. Enterprises have, therefore, a unique contribution to make, and a decisive benefit to reap, in building the learning society of the future.

Enterprises' involvement in training has proven to be crucial for the enhancement of the relevance, efficiency and effectiveness of skill development. Their contribution needs to be further stimulated in order to spill the benefits of their knowledge, energy and resources, not only over their own employees but, most particularly, throughout society at large. Innovative partnerships between enterprises and governments, involving workers' and employers' organizations and other interested groups, are spreading out a renewed impetus to the development of flexible training systems aimed at fostering employability for all workers.

For enterprises to flourish and progressively take over an increasing share of social responsibility, governments have to provide the enabling environment, the incentives and the support allowing them to invest in human capital, reaching beyond their immediate needs. At the same time, the value of competence, the pride of learning and the audacity of enterprises to blaze the trails need to be rooted and appreciated in all sectors of society.

Building the knowledge society of the future requires commitment from all actors. In the current global scenario, driven by market forces and economic demand, the time has come for those who have been its main architects to assume their share of the responsibility in reconciling growth and equity.

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